History of China

Today we’re giving a presentation on the history of China. All credit for preparing the presentation belongs to my brother—he approached the material thoroughly and did the bulk of the work. I only took a small part, and together we decided to present everything in an interesting and interactive way.

At the start, I’d like to quote a well-known phrase attributed to Napoleon: “When France decides…,” and we’ll mention that joke today. I also remember an anecdote from childhood: a son asks his father, “Why do Chinese people eat rice with chopsticks? If they ate with spoons, then the whole world would eat with chopsticks.” This joke shows how each culture can regard its own norms as universal.

For our presentation, we’ve made some changes: Zhorik will present the positive side, and I’ll take the opposing view. At one point we’ll even ask the audience to vote. Zhorik will argue “for,” and I’ll argue “against.” This little game will keep things lively. In the text below, anything in red would be Zhorik’s words, and in blue, mine—just to indicate our roles.

The Beginning of the Story

We’ll begin with the history of China and trace how its model of society formed. Traditionally, Chinese culture has viewed the world through an egocentric model: they see themselves as the “Celestial Empire” (or “Under Heaven”), with all other nations considered barbarians surrounding them. Ideologically, Chinese society was always strictly vertical: at the top were the bureaucrats and aristocrats, below them merchants, artisans, and peasants, and at the very bottom, slaves. In many early civilizations—like Egypt or Rome—military elites and priests held the highest status, but in China, generals and soldiers were not as exalted. Peasant uprisings frequently toppled military provinces, so military leaders never held the same prestige as in other empires.

A central idea explaining the rise and fall of Chinese dynasties is the “Mandate of Heaven” (天命, Tiānmìng). The concept holds that when a new dynasty takes power, it has the Mandate of Heaven and reigns in prosperity. Over time, however, corruption seeps in, taxes become unbearable, and state power weakens. Natural disasters strike—floods, droughts, famines—and peasants rebel. People interpret these events as signs that the ruling dynasty has lost its Mandate. Rebels overthrow the old regime, claim the Mandate for themselves, and restore order. This cycle—rise, decay, rebellion, replacement—repeats over and over in Chinese history. On average, each dynasty’s life span was about 120 years, roughly corresponding to long periods of unified rule followed by fragmentation.

The Qin Empire (秦帝国)

The first truly unified empire in China was the Qin. Its founder, King Ying Zheng of Qin, became known as Qin Shi Huangdi (秦始皇帝, “First Emperor of Qin”). He was a strict ruler. Born into a noble family, his father died when Ying Zheng was still a teenager, and rival factions in the court sought to kill him because his mother had lower status. Family members hid him until he was safe. Once he ascended the throne, he conquered the other warring kingdoms and declared himself “Shi Huangdi,” which roughly means “First August Emperor.”

During Shi Huangdi’s reign:

• He ordered the construction of what later became known as the Great Wall of China. Rather than building one continuous wall, he had existing fortifications between former states linked together along the northern frontier to defend against nomadic invasions.

• He commissioned the Terracotta Army: over a thousand life-size clay warriors and chariots, buried in his mausoleum to protect him in the afterlife.

• He established a highly centralized bureaucratic administration. His legal system was based primarily on Legalist philosophy—a strict code of laws and harsh punishments—though he also used Confucian and Daoist advisors for guidance.

In people’s minds then (and in many ways still today), the world was centered on China. They saw themselves as “Under Heaven” (天朝, Tiāncháo), the true center, and everyone else as outsiders or barbarians. Even when Roman envoys reached China, the Chinese court treated them as tributary envoys rather than equals—symbolically giving them a yellow umbrella, a sign of vassalage. The Romans didn’t grasp that symbolism and thought they had arrived merely as barbarians, not as representatives of another great empire.

The Mandate of Heaven and the Dynastic Cycle

All of Chinese history can be viewed through the lens of changing dynasties under the Mandate of Heaven. The cycle is:

1. Rise of a New Dynasty— Period of prosperity, fair taxes, strong military power.

2. Corruption and Decline— Gradual rise in taxes, an expanding bureaucracy, eroding control by the central government.

3. Peasant Uprisings & Natural Disasters— Famine, floods, earthquakes, and other calamities interpreted as signs that the dynasty has lost Heaven’s favor.

4. Rebellion and Replacement— Rebels overthrow the old dynasty in violent conflict. A new dynasty claims the Mandate of Heaven and restores order.

This pattern continued from the Qin dynasty all the way into the early twentieth century. Each cycle averaged around 120 years—about a human lifetime—mirroring how empires rise and fall. It’s strikingly similar to the Roman experience, where republics gave way to empire, and later empire dissolved into successor states.

The Han Empire (汉帝国) and Parallel to Rome

During the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE), China rivaled the Roman Empire in size and sophistication. The Han promoted expansive external policies and developed extensive trade networks. At the same time, Rome was consolidating its power across Europe and the Near East. Although the two empires never formally met, Roman envoys did attempt to travel to China.

There were two primary routes connecting East and West:

• The Overland Silk Road ran from China’s eastern coast through Central Asia to the Mediterranean. Caravans carried silk, spices, porcelain, and other luxury goods.

• The Maritime Silk Road saw Chinese junks sailing through the South China Sea, across the Indian Ocean to East Africa, and up to the Persian Gulf. By the time Portuguese explorers “rediscovered” China in the sixteenth century, Chinese sailors had already reached East Africa, South Asia, and even parts of Southeast Asia centuries earlier.

Three Great Thinkers: Laozi, Confucius, and Mencius

Chinese philosophy owes much to three towering figures:

• Laozi (老子, c. 6th century BCE) founded Daoism. His classic text, the Dao De Jing (道德经), remains a foundational spiritual-philosophical work. In Daoist tradition, Laozi is revered as one of the “Three Pure Ones” (三清, Sānqīng), the highest deities in the Daoist pantheon.

• Confucius (孔子, 551 – 479 BCE) founded Confucianism, a system focused on strict ritual observance, moral behavior, and social hierarchy. Confucian ethics rest on five key relationships: ruler–subject, father–son, elder brother–younger brother, husband–wife, friend–friend. Education and moral self-cultivation were central to Confucianism.

• Mencius (孟子, 372 – 289 BCE) was Confucius’s most important disciple. He argued that human nature is inherently good and further developed Confucian ideas about benevolent leadership and ethical governance.

These three schools—Daoism, Confucianism, and, later, Legalism—shaped ancient Chinese thought. Legalism (法家, Fǎjiā) emerged as a hardline state doctrine advocating strict law enforcement and severe punishments for any dissent.

The Han Dynasty: A “Golden Age”

The Han dynasty is often called China’s “Golden Age.” During Han rule:

• Territories expanded far to the west, bringing Central Asia under Chinese influence, and reaching into the Korean Peninsula and northern Vietnam.

• Diplomatic and trade ties with western peoples flourished, enabling the Silk Road to develop.

• Major inventions and scientific advances emerged: paper manufacturing, early forms of steam-powered devices, and metallurgical breakthroughs.

Despite this prosperity, the Han rulers still employed the Mandate-of-Heaven ideology. Over time, palace intrigue—especially manipulations by imperial consorts and eunuchs—eroded central authority. Rising tax burdens eventually sparked peasant uprisings, giving early hints of the cycle that would culminate in the dynasty’s fall in 220 CE.

The Taiping Rebellion and Christian Millenarianism (1850 – 1864)

By the mid-nineteenth century, China faced severe internal turmoil. The Taiping Rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan (洪秀全), who proclaimed himself “younger brother of Jesus Christ” and founded the “Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace” (太平天国, Tàipíng Tiānguó). The conflict, one of the deadliest uprisings in history, claimed around 30 million lives—nearly 10 percent of China’s population at the time.

Simultaneously, Muslim uprisings in Xinjiang and Yunnan erupted, and later, the Boxer Rebellion (义和团运动, 1899 – 1901) saw anti-foreign militants clashing with missionary and Western influences. The Eight-Nation Alliance intervened to suppress the Boxers, further weakening China’s sovereignty.

The Qing Empire (1644 – 1912)

The last imperial dynasty of China was the Qing (清朝, Qīngcháo). During Qing rule:

• Western powers—Britain, Russia, Germany, Portugal, and others—imposed a series of “unequal treaties.” China ceded territory, paid massive indemnities, and conceded trade privileges.

• Empress Dowager Cixi (慈禧太后, Cíxǐ Tàihòu) wielded power through intrigue and ruthless suppression of rebellions, including the Boxer Uprising.

• Repeated military defeats left China a shadow of its former self by the early twentieth century.

In 1912, the last Qing emperor, Puyi (溥仪, Pǔyí), was forced to abdicate. The Republic of China (中华民国, Zhōnghuá Mínguó) was proclaimed, but civil war between the Nationalists (Guomindang, 国民党, Guómíndǎng) and Communists (led by Mao Zedong, 毛泽东) began almost immediately.

Civil War and the Founding of the PRC

After the Qing fell in 1912, China plunged into a power struggle. During World War II, Nationalists and Communists united against Japanese invaders (including the Nanking Massacre of 1937). Once Japan was defeated, a brutal civil war ensued. In 1949, Mao Zedong declared the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国, Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó), and Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalists retreated to Taiwan.

Mao’s vision of “Socialism with Chinese Characteristics” led to the Great Leap Forward (1958 – 1962) and the Cultural Revolution (1966 – 1976):

• The Great Leap Forward aimed to rapidly industrialize and collectivize agriculture. An infamous campaign to exterminate sparrows (to protect crops) backfired, leading to locust plagues and massive famine—tens of millions died.

• The Cultural Revolution targeted perceived “bourgeois” elements in society. Intellectuals, teachers, and professionals were persecuted. Factories and farms often collapsed under chaotic policies, and social order broke down.

Mao’s policies ended in disaster. After his death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping (邓小平, Dèng Xiǎopíng) ushered in a new era of economic reform.

Deng Xiaoping’s Reforms (1978 – 1992)

In 1978, Deng Xiaoping launched the “Reform and Opening Up” campaign, inspired in part by the Soviet New Economic Policy (NEP) of the 1920s:

• He permitted collective and private enterprises, easing China’s transition toward a market-driven economy.

• He established Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou, and Xiamen—areas offering tax incentives to foreign investors.

• He focused on export-oriented industries, such as textiles, electronics, and household appliances.

Meanwhile, the United States and other Western nations saw China as a counterbalance to the Soviet Union. In 1971, the PRC replaced Taiwan as a permanent member of the UN Security Council. Between 1978 and the late 1980s, the Chinese economy boomed—annual GDP growth often exceeded 20 percent, fueled by cheap labor, disciplined workforces, and foreign investment comparable to a “Marshall Plan” infusion.

Modern Rise and the “Middle-Income Trap”

In the early twenty-first century, China began shifting from “world factory” to high-tech powerhouse. Recently, growth has slowed for several reasons:

1. Rising Wages— Manufacturing is no longer as cheap as in Vietnam or India.

2. Real-Estate Crisis— Developers like Evergrande racked up massive debts; countless new cities and high-rise developments remain unoccupied “ghost towns.”

3. Middle-Income Trap— Once a country’s per-capita GDP reaches roughly $10 000, growth plateaus unless it transitions to an innovation- and service-based economy.

4. Demographic Decline— Aging population and shrinking workforce, in part due to decades-long “one-child” policy.

Today, China’s nominal GDP stands just over $19 trillion—second only to the U.S. ($26 trillion). But by purchasing-power parity (PPP), China is already number one, at about $34 trillion versus the U.S. at $24 trillion. Still, those numbers don’t tell the whole story—average Chinese tourists spend far less abroad than Russian tourists do, despite China’s massive GDP.

Even with slower growth, China remains a global economic engine. For years, it supplied around 65 percent of the U.S. import market; today, that share has dipped to roughly 50 percent as many companies relocate to Vietnam, India, and Malaysia for cheaper labor and to diversify away from China.

Geopolitical Expansion: Infrastructure & Belt and Road

China is investing heavily in infrastructure worldwide:

• Ports— Chinese firms have acquired major ports in Europe (such as Genoa and Piraeus), South Asia, and Africa. In Djibouti, they built their first overseas military base to protect shipping lanes from piracy.

• Energy— China finances oil and gas extraction in Venezuela (which holds some of the world’s largest reserves) and invests in Russian and Kazakh projects.

• “Belt and Road Initiative” (一带一路, Yīdài yīlù)— A modern revival of the Silk Road: China is constructing overland and maritime corridors through Central Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and into Europe. By partnering with countries whose governments may be unstable (e.g., Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan), China seeks to secure long-term trade routes.

While historic Silk Road paths mostly ran through Central Asia and into Eastern Europe via Moscow, the contemporary “Belt and Road” often circumvents Russia due to current geopolitical tensions.

Military and Technological Advancements

China has made remarkable strides in defense technology:

• Hypersonic Weapons— China is among the first nations to field hypersonic missiles capable of evading most missile-defense systems.

• Aircraft Carriers— Starting with a former Russian anti-submarine ship converted into an experimental training carrier, China now operates at least two domestically built carriers (Liaoning 辽宁号 and Shandong 山东号) and is building a third. Unlike the U.S. “floating air bases,” Chinese carriers combine cruiser firepower with an air wing.

• Space Program— China is the only country besides the former USSR and U.S. to operate its own space station (Tiangong 天宫). In 2019, it became the first nation since the Apollo era to return lunar samples to Earth. China now plans to build a permanent lunar base and is expanding its satellite constellation.

Politics of Modern China

Until 1982, China’s constitution limited the General Secretary of the Communist Party to two five-year terms. In 2018, that term limit was abolished. Xi Jinping (习近平) became General Secretary—also serving as President of the PRC and Chairman of the Central Military Commission.

Under Xi:

• Anti-Corruption Campaign— Thousands of high-ranking Party and military officials were removed, including loyalists of Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao.

• Ideological Tightening— “Xi Jinping Thought” has been enshrined as the guiding ideology. Media, internet platforms, and NGOs face strict censorship and control.

• Second Economic Line— A policy focus on innovation, advanced technology, and outward expansion.

Still, China faces major challenges:

1. Demographic Decline— Low birthrates and an aging population strain social services.

2. Environmental and Energy Problems— Severe pollution and water shortages threaten economic development.

3. Technological Constraints— China lags in critical areas like microelectronics and semiconductors, remaining dependent on U.S. (and other) technology.

4. Social Inequality— “Ghost cities” highlight the urban–rural divide, while megacities prosper and inland provinces lag.

China vs. the United States: Rivalry and Future

In the twenty-first century, geopolitical rivalry between China and the U.S. has reached its peak:

• Trade War— Mutual tariffs on each other’s exports.

• Tech Competition— The U.S. restricts exports of advanced chips and software to China, imposing sanctions on Huawei, ZTE, and other firms.

• Military Tensions— Disputes in the South China Sea, Taiwan Strait, and U.S. Indo-Pacific strategy.

Economically, the U.S. still leads with a $26 trillion nominal GDP; China is second at $19 trillion. Yet by PPP, China is first at $34 trillion versus $24 trillion for the U.S. Looking ahead, many analysts believe China cannot sustain 8–10 percent annual growth. Its growth has already fallen to 4–5 percent, because:

1. Rising Labor Costs push manufacturing to cheaper countries.

2. Real-Estate Debt Crisis threatens financial stability—developers like Evergrande nearly collapsed, risking a “domino effect.”

3. Middle-Income Trap requires China to shift from manufacturing to high-value services and innovation—but dependence on foreign semiconductors makes that hard.

Some fear China will follow Japan’s 1990s path of stagnation after a bubble burst. Others argue China will remain dominant by heavily investing in new technologies, infrastructure, and expanding its influence in Africa and Latin America.

Audience Vote

Now we invite you to vote:

• “For” if you believe China will enter a period of stagnation within the next four years.

• “Against” if you believe China’s growth will continue.

(After voting, we will discuss the results and take your questions.)

Summary and Conclusions

1. Dynastic History & the Mandate of Heaven— Chinese history revolves around dynastic cycles, each under Heaven’s Mandate. After every fall, the next dynasty rose on promises of reform and renewal.

2. Qin Empire— Qin Shi Huangdi unified China, built the early Great Wall, and commissioned the Terracotta Army while laying the groundwork for a centralized bureaucracy.

3. Han Dynasty and “Golden Ages”— Han expansion and consolidation set the stage for centuries of cultural and scientific advances. Corruption, however, eventually led to decline, uprisings (e.g., Taiping, Boxer).

4. Mao’s Failures & Deng’s Reforms— Mao’s Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution devastated China. Deng Xiaoping’s reforms in 1978 opened the economy, triggering the “economic miracle” of the late twentieth century.

5. Modern “Socialism with Chinese Characteristics”— Today, an authoritarian political system coexists with market reforms under the banner of “Xi Jinping Thought.”

6. U.S.-China Rivalry— Technological competition, trade disputes, and military tensions define the current era. China leads in GDP (PPP), but the U.S. still holds advantages in innovation, and China’s growth is slowing.

7. Economic Challenges— Demographic decline, environmental pressures, real-estate debt, and the middle-income trap demand that China pivot to innovation and services.

8. Geopolitical Outreach— Via the Belt and Road Initiative and strategic investments in Africa, Latin America, and Central Asia, China seeks to secure trade routes and expand its influence.

China has come far—from ancient empire to global powerhouse—but internal and external challenges loom large. In the coming years, China must reform its growth model, boost services and high-tech industries, and address social and environmental pressures.

If you have questions about Chinese history, reforms, or modern issues, we’re ready to answer them now.